When approaching a performance, accomplished musicians often consider
the historical context from which a piece originates. They most often
think of such considerations in the application of that context as it
pertains to early music that is, the Baroque era or earlier. For any
era, such historical considerations are called performance practice,
and may include the use of vibrato, ornamentation, dynamic levels,
tempi, instrumental timbres, performance setting, and balance. Vibrato
and ornamentation are two important areas of consideration that
vocalists must explore when aiming to give an authentically Baroque
performance.
'Ideal' Baroque Vocal Technique: The Assumed Ideas
Over
the past several years, some amateur musicians have developed specific
ideas about 'correct' performance practice of Baroque music. In an
essay concerning the issues of Baroque music performance, Michael
Sartorius notes that:
performance to a major degree reflects the spirit of the times, and
some of today's 'authentic' performances have less to do with
historical accuracy, attempting rather to produce a performance which,
in John Eliot Gardiner's words, will 'excite modern listeners.'
(Sartorius)
As a result, audiences today want a sound that contrasts with the full,
constant vibrato used in singing today, such as is found in
straight-tone singing, and a sound that contrasts with twentieth
century minimalism, such as is found in ornamented melodies.
Amateur voice teachers, amateur singers, and amateur listeners often
associate straight-tone singing with correct Baroque performance
practice (Almirena). This idea is probably an outgrowth of the way
scholars understand correct delivery of Renaissance polyphony: that
perfectly clear intonation was essential to effective performance of
those contrapuntal and imitative lines (Lejeune). In The Interpretation
of Music, Thurston Dart writes: 'it is very unlikely that any vibrato
was used in the ensemble singing of earlier times; the few theorists
who mention it condemn it' (51). In light of the intricate counterpoint
employed by Renaissance and late medieval composers, it is natural that
clear intonation would have been vital to the clarity of their
multi-voiced compositions. David Wulstan suggests that in singing the
decorated Baroque songs, singers surely had to provide contrast between
trilled and untrilled notes: 'Baroque singers could hardly have sung in
such a way that trills were indistinguishable from the surrounding
gelatinous wobble' (179). Singers today, in an effort to project their
voices in huge performance venues have to use their voice in way that
produces, in most cases, a large vibrato. Large vibratos can make it
difficult, at times, to hear a distinct pitch, and therefore trills
(alternating quickly between two adjacent pitches) are also difficult
to hear. Thus, it is easy to idealize a pure vocal quality so that
there is a clear contrast between trilled and untrilled notes. Contrast
is, after all, one defining characteristic of Baroque era musicÑthus,
the amateur assumption has a reasonable basis.
In regards to the decoration of Baroque music, amateurs often think
that Baroque music is extremely ornamented. This practice is a more
recently acceptable practice: scholar Ronald Roseman says that as
recently as the 1960s, even cadential trills were not acceptable in
performance of either instrumental or vocal literature of the Baroque.
The melodic ornamentation practiced today, however, enhance emotional
intensity, therefore giving life to the composer's desired affection
(Glover).
Baroque Vocal Technique: The Ideas of the Experts
There are several ideals to the Baroque aesthetic. Perhaps one of the
most important is the importance of conveying a specific emotion. This
is in accordance with the 'Doctrine of the Affections,' a dominant
philosophy in the Baroque era that grew out of Descartes's 1649
treatise, The Passions of the Soul (Seaton 153). Sartorius notes that
text clarity is also important to Baroque vocal composers. The
development of the monodic song style is evidence of the importance of
text. Furthermore, it is important that performers have a respect for
and connection to the music. This can only come from a deep connection
to the music as a result of spending hours with the text and music in
order to fully explore the structure, mood, and harmonies of a piece.
After that deep connection exists, the music should flow from a singer
with ease.
Considering again the use of vibrato, remember that amateur musicians
often associate a straight-tone vocal production with early music. In
order to achieve that, some teachers encourage a type of singing that
involves placing the larynx high in the throat in order to eliminate
the vibrato (Jones). L≥jeune believes that 'a voice without any vibrato
loses the essential qualities of expression that allow it to convey
emotion.' One can deduce that, according to L≥jeune, stripping the
voice of vibrato would contradict the major premise of Baroque musical
purpose: conveying emotion. While this point is debatable, of greater
concern to singers is that singing as such, with a high larynx, will
take 15 to 20 years off the end of a singer's vocal life. In a
comprehensive examination of the Italian singing technique, Antonella
Nigro notes that a healthy straight-tone vocal production can create
impeccable intonation. Jones reminds his readers, on the other hand,
that a straight-tone timbre resulting from high-larynx singing can be
'harsh, unflattering, and often under-pitched.' That would not have
been acceptable in the Baroque, nor should it be acceptable now.
Writings from the Baroque era that describe proper use of vibrato
exist. Ludovico Zacconi, author of Prattica di Musica (Venice, 1596),
wrote:
The tremolo is not necessary in music; but to perform it, besides
demonstrating sincerity and boldness, embellishes the cantilenas. [It]
should be succinct, and graceful; because the excessive and forced is
tedious, and annoys. (qtd. In Nigro XV-XVI)
As a natural phenomenon, Zacconi recognizes that the vibrato is a
constant presence rather than a technique for emphasis or ornament
(Nigro XVI). Another Baroque writer, Giovanni Maffei, outlined rules
for singing (1562), one of which is 'that one push the breath little by
little with the voice' (qtd. in Nigro XVI). Giulio Caccini of the
Florentine camerata says that maintaining correct pitch is absolutely
necessary (610). Nigro concludes that Zacconi's 'tremolo' is
essentially the same as today's vibrato, and explains that there is a
difference between occurring naturally and occurring 'in oscillations
so wide (owing, usually, to efforts to increase the volume of the
voice) as to impair intonation and sound-quality' (XVI). She suggests
also that Maffei's breathing technique is much like the modern
breath-control technique, which does produce a vibrato involuntarily
(XVI). Nigro agrees with Jones that fixing the voice in a straight tone
by high-larynx singing is an unnatural and unnecessary vocal abuse
(XVII). Certainly, Baroque composers, performers, and audiences would
have condemned a musical expression that resulted in a forced sound or
compromised intonation.
Beyond vibrato is the issue of ornamentation. Piano professor Martin
Kauble says that 'Baroque art is considered excessively decorative,
dramatic, flamboyant and emotional' (Kauble). In the preface to his
treatise Le nuove musiche, Caccini insists that all
ornamentationsÑincluding all crescendos, decrescendos, and
'exclamations, trills, gruppi'Ñshould be used discriminately for
expression (609-610). Kauble and Roseman say that composers 'outlined'
melodies, fully expecting performers to ornament them and extend
cadences with coloratura ornamentation and cadenzas. It was perfectly
acceptable for singers (and instrumentalists) to adapt and adjust
melodic material to their personal styleÑand they were fully aware of
that style because of their extensive training in techniques of
improvising cadenzas and ornamental material to all genres in which
they performed (Almirena). Giovanni Bontempi wrote Historia Musica
(1695), of which Nigro included an excerpt in her essay:
The schools of Rome obliged their pupils to devote an hour of each day
to singing difficult and awkward pieces for the sake of acquiring
experience. Another hour to practicing the trill. Another to practicing
the passaggi. Another to literary study and another to training and
exercises in song, in the hearing of the Maestro and in front of a
mirror so as to develop the habit of making no unsuitable movement, And
all these were the activities of the morning. After midday, half an
hour would be devoted to theoretical instruction, another half-hour to
counterpoint over a cantus firmus, one hour to receiving the parts for
the counterpoint and putting them up on the 'cartella' another hour to
literary study; and the remainder of the day to practice in playing the
clavicembalo, and composition (qtd. in XX-XXI)
Such rigorous training certainly provided singers with ample expertise
in ornamentation. This is why it is important, when performing a
Baroque piece, to understand its underlying harmonies, mood, and
structure before attempting to add ornamentation.
Caccini explains that embellishments in 'good singing,' in addition to
their expressive value, are additions of grace (613). Each performer,
he says, must ornament in a way suited to his or her own voice (612).
Roseman categorizes ornamentation into two groups: standard
embellishments (i.e. trills and mordents) and free ornamentation
(expansions of the original melodic material). He suggests applying
standard embellishments according to the following guidelines: (1) add
trills at virtually all important cadences (unless otherwise specified,
or if the text calls for simplicity); (2) add long trills or half
trills fairly freely at non-cadential notes; (3) add appoggiatura
freely to 'heighten the poignancy and warmth of the music by creating
dissonance,' although these are most effective on strong beats
(Roseman). It is important to ensure that the movement of the bass line
is in proper counterpoint with the ornamented melody that is, without
parallel fifths, octaves, or parallel dissonant intervals (Roseman).
Performers must add free ornamentation carefully as well (Roseman). The
most important guidelines for free ornamentation that Roseman gives
include (1) do not ornament a theme during its first statement; (2) a
performer should embellish only repeats of phrases or sections; (3)
ornamentation should grow in complexity as the movement progresses; and
(4) if ornamentation is written, the performer should accept it as a
suggestion. Roseman makes it clear that, in general, 'The ornamentation
should follow the general shape of the composer's original line and
maintain the affect of the piece' (Roseman). Caccini cautions singers
to maintain in their singing and ornamentation a sprezzaturaÑa
carelessness of sorts, that causes audiences to wonder whether the
performer speaks or sings, while passing over several dissonances and
consonances in relation to the sustained bass note as he or she
expresses an affection (608). However, Roseman cautions against
over-embellishing: 'You should not feel that you must ornament
elaborately. That is totally alien to the spirit of Baroque playing,
which is one of freedom and personal expression.' An over-embellished
piece would lose the sprezzatura of which Caccini writes. Again, it is
the emotion of the piece that is important; all the embellishments
should contribute to composers' intended affections.
Caccini insists that singers perform all melodies and ornamentation
with grace. To provide more ease of performance, he suggests that the
pitches that composers write are not absolute pitches: ' a master of
this art, when singing solo with a stringed instrument should choose a
pitch level at which he can sing with a full, natural voice, in order
to avoid going into forced tones' (616). Thus, singers should adapt
music to a key that provides a comfortable range for their vocal
instrument. This 'full, natural voice' that Caccini prefers to 'forced
tones' is what singers find in comfortable parts of their range,
requiring little breath outside of what the singer can use for
conveying emotion. One way that Caccini suggests employing the breath
for expressive effect is in crescendos and decrescendos. One specific
case he gives is to begin the first note softly, applying a crescendo
to that note, so that the piece begins in a 'stylish manner' (Caccini
611).
Applying Performance Practice: Begli occhi (Strozzi) and Ah! Spietato! (Handel)
Barbara Strozzi, born in Venice in 1619, was a composer of the early
Baroque era (Rosand 606). She also performed with excellence on the
lute and as a vocalist (Archer x). She published eight volumes of
madrigals, motets, ariettas, arias, and cantatas for voice and continuo
(Rosand 606). She was an accomplished singer and lutenist as well
(Archer x). Her songs are settings of poetry by her father, Giulio
Strozzi, and many others who were associated with the
mid-seventeenth-century world of Venetian opera (Rosand 607). In
following the Baroque traditions, Strozzi's music is highly emotive and
full of contrasts. Contrasts are evident in instrumental timbre (voice
versus continuo accompaniment), and in tempo changes between textual
phrases (compare text in Appendix 1B with the line markings in the
musical score of Appendix 1A). She creates emotion with dissonance at
key cadences, as determined also by the poetic lines, for example, in
measures 9-10, measure 20, and measures 36-37. Strozzi also creates
emotion by carrying over a Renaissance practice of word painting; for
example, the words 'si pungente e mortali' (so sharp and deadly) have
angular melodic lines in both voices that descend, reflecting a fall.
In
terms of Baroque performance practice, one must consider whether
ornamentation and vibrato are appropriate for this piece. Strozzi wrote
already-ornamented melodies with unfigured bass, and this piece has no
markings of further suggested ornamentation, whereas a few of her other
compositions have trills marked occasionally (Archer x). Gail Archer,
editor of Strozzi's Opus 3 for Recent Researches in the Music of the
Baroque Era, suggests that Strozzi notated all the ornamentation that
she intended, and, since Strozzi wrote an unfigured bass, she preferred
clarity and simplicity of expression (x). Consequently, adding much
ornamentation to Strozzi's work would thwart her intentions. A singer
could add a few trills, for example, the mezzo-soprano in measure 42 on
the first A, or the soprano in measure 43 on the first DÑbut care
should be taken to preserve the clarity of Strozzi's harmonies.
The
opera Amadigi originated in a much later part of the Baroque. Written
in 1714, Handel used the recitative and da capo aria styles he learned
while traveling in Italy during 1706-1709 (Amadigi). Ah! Spietato!, a
da capo aria, follows Baroque tradition. It has an emotive nature,
evidenced in dissonance and text painting, and it is organized into two
sections that contrast in tempi and in emotive ideas. The first section
begins with the words 'Ah! spietato!' (Ah, cruel one!), with a
descending melodic line that resembles a sigh (mm. 1-2). The second
section, in contrast, is more playful, with its quick tempo, as the
character tries to show that the listener does not 'realize that/You
scorn a loving soul,/Whom you wish to betray' (Kagen 26). This piece is
different from Strozzi's in that the overriding ideas determine the
sections of the music, rather than the individual literary phrases. In
Handel's composition, both sections iterate the text twice; the second
iteration is a variation of the first. This allows further exploration
of the text, and the da capo structure allows an even deeper emotive
exploration, since that is when the singer can begin to ornament.
In following with the suggestions given by Roseman, singers should not
ornament the aria Ah! Spietato! during its first statement. The
repeated section (the Largo) is the section for singers to ornament.
One possibility for ornamentation on the repeat is added in blue
markings directly on the music in Appendix 2. The ornamentation begins
by simply filling in intervals that Handel outlined with grace notes
and note values that become part of the regular rhythm: in m. 2, the F#
to the E is in rhythm (as rhythmically notated above the staff); in m.
3, the E and F# are grace notes. Many of the ornamental notes increase
the dissonance, thereby adding to the emotion of the piece. Adding
cadential trills is necessary, as Roseman and Caccini suggest; this
works well on the C# in measure 12 and the D# in measure 27. These
cadences are both at the end of the first entire phrase, which Handel
wrote twice (' Che per te mi fˆ languir!'); it is no accident that the
trill should be on the same word. The second repeat of the first entire
phrase (mm. 14-28) should be more extensively embellished than it is in
the first 13 measures of the repeat. Therefore, a singer can add more
appoggiatura (mm. 18, 20) and more complicated extensions of the
melodic line by using triplets (mm. 21, 22, 23, 25). The use of
triplets may detract slightly from the sad affect of the largo section,
but after hearing the Allegro section's more playful agitation the
triplets seem acceptable and fitting.
The question of whether or not to use vibrato in both of the
aforementioned pieces seems rather mundane in light of earlier
discussion. Zacconi, Jones, and Nigro affirm that the use of a vibrato,
when forced, has the potential to compromise pitch clarity and
intonation. Jones, Nigro, and Caccini all clearly say that such
compromise is undesirable in performing Baroque music. At the same
time, both Jones and L jeune caution against high-larynx singing in
order to stop vibrato completely, for reasons of vocal health. One can
deduce, then, that the most desirable performance practice of Baroque
music in regards to the use of vibrato is to maintain a clear, resonant
tone that is free and graceful, not forced in any way so as to avoid
wide oscillations in tone and pitch. Furthermore, Archer explains that
Strozzi wrote in an already-ornamented style that calls for simplicity
beyond what is written on the page. Likewise, in the Handel aria, the
use of vibrato in relation to performance practice should be
considered, but singers should not compromise the beauty of the music
by straining the voice in unnatural ways.
Baroque Vocal Technique: Performance Practice
When
considering the performance practice of Baroque pieces, singers must
consider the emotion of the piece. Emotion is a key determinant of
appropriate ornamentation of a piece, which individuals should discover
according to their vocal instrument. Emotion should also help direct
the use of vibrato, but no singer should have so wide a vibrato as to
compromise pitch clarity or intonation. Singers also should not limit
or stop vibrato by techniques that are abusive to the voice. In order
to fully understand the mood, harmonies, and structure, singers must
study and learn the piece so that it integrates into their full
awareness of experience. It is only then that ornamentation of all
kinds and the most natural vibrato can emerge in the true baroque
spiritÑshowing a respect and an affection for the music.
Almirena. Baroque Vocal Ornamentation ∆ The Elaborate Pearls of the
Voice. Ed. GTBacchus. 16 April 2003. BBCi h2g2. [17 Oct. 2003]
.
Caccini, Giulio. "Preface." Le nuove musiche. Florence, 1602. In Source
Readings in Music History. Revised ed. Ed. Oliver Strunk. New York: W.
W. Norton & Company, 1998. 608-617.
Dart, Thurston. The Interpretation of Music. Harper & Row, 1963.
51-52. Classical Vocal Technique. [17 Oct. 2003]
Glover, Jane. What is Baroque Music? Answer 3: A Fusion of Sound and
Setting. Music of the Baroque. n.dat. n.pag. [17 Oct. 2003]
.
Handel, George Frederic. 'Ah! Spietato!' 45 Arias from Operas and
Oratorios for Voice and Piano, High Voice. Ed. Sergius Kagen. vol. 1.
New York: International Music Company, 1959. 26-29.
Jones, David L. Specific Issues Concerning the Professional Baroque
Singer. 2003. [17 Oct. 2003]
.
Kauble, Martin E. Music History ∆ The Baroque Period. n.dat. n.pag. [17
Oct. 2003] .
Nigro, Antonella (Transl. David Mitchell). Observations on the
Technique of Italian Singing from the 16th Century to the Present Day.
n.dat. n.pag. [17 Oct. 2003]
.
Rosand, Ellen and Beth L. Glixon. "Strozzi, Barbara [Valler, Barbara]."
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd ed. 2001.
Roseman, Ronald. "Baroque Ornamentation." The Journal of the
International Double Reed Society Number 3. 1975. IDRS. [17 October
2003]
.
Sartorius, Michael. Baroque Music Perormance: "Authentic" or
"Traditional": A discussion of the essential issues involved. Ed.
Micahel Sartorius. n.dat. Baroque Music Pages. [17 October 2003]
.
Seaton, Douglass. Ideas and Styles in the Western Musical Tradition.
Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1991. 153.
Strozzi, Barbara. Cantate, ariete a una, doce, e tre voci, Opus 3. Ed.
Gail Archer. In Recent Researches in the Music of the Baroque Era. vol.
83. Ed. Christoph Wolff. Madisono: A-R Editions, Inc., 1997.
Wulstan, David. Tudor Music. University of Iowa Press, 1986. 174-180.
Classical Vocal Techniqe.
.
Goshen College
1700 South Main Street, Goshen, Indiana 46526
Toll free: 1 (800) 348-7422 • Local: (574) 535-7000 • E-mail: info@goshen.edu
